Care for children Essay Example for Free

Care for children Essay ‘’Child care (or childcare, child minding, daycare,or preschool) is the caring for and supervision of a child or children, usually from newborn to age thirteen. Child care is the action or skill of looking after children by a day-care centre, babysitter, or other providers. Child care is a broad topic covering a wide spectrum of contexts, activities, social and cultural conventions, and institutions. The majority of child care institutions that are available require that child care providers have extensive training in first aid and are CPR certified. In addition, background checks, drug testing, and reference verification are normally a requirement Family child care In home care is known as family child care it typically is provided by nannies, au pairs, or friends and family. The child is watched inside their own home or the caregivers home, reducing exposure to outside children and illnesses. Depending on the number of children in the home, the children utilizing in-home care enjoy the greatest amount of interaction with their caregiver, forming a close bond. There are no required licensing or background checks for in-home care, making parental vigilance essential in choosing an appropriate caregiver. Nanny and au pair services provide certified caregivers and the cost of in-home care is the highest of childcare options per child, though a household with many children may find this the most convenient and affordable option. Many nannies study towards childcare qualifications. This means they are trained to create a safe and stimulating environment for your child to enjoy and thrive in. Typically, au pairs or nannies provide more than routine child care, often assisting with daily household activities, including running errands, shopping, doing laundry, fixing meals, and cleaning house. Centre-based care[edit] Commercial care centres also known as daycares are open for set hours, and provide a standardized and regulated system of care for children. Parents may choose from a commercial care centre close to their work, and some companies offer care at their facilities. Active children may thrive in the educational activities provided by a quality commercial care centre, but according to the National Centre for Early Development and Learning, children from low quality centres may be significantly less advanced in terms of vocabulary and reading skills. [1] Classes are usually largest in this type of care, ratios of children to adult caregivers will vary according to state licensing requirements. Some positives of commercial care are children gain independence, academic achievement and socialization. Informal care[edit] Informal childcare is a variation of childcare that utilizes family members as a childcare system, for example grandparents and siblings. Informal childcare is an especially inexpensive form of childcare, and is utilized typically by those who are considered poor. Parents may need to utilize informal care for a variety of reasons. Typically informal childcare is necessary for families who do not have enough funds to finance placing their children in a more expensive child care facility. Those low income families are also more apt to work longer hours on an irregular and inflexible schedule, which ultimately makes using a childcare facility that has regular business hours unlikely’’ Taken from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Child_care#Family_child_care ‘’Childminders are Ofsted registered professional daycarers who look after children in their own homes. They offer a flexible service, caring for children aged from birth to sixteen years. They are only allowed to look after upto six children between the ages birth to eight (including their own). They can have more children if they work in partnership with other childminders or assistants. The service offered is unique to each family’s needs and many childminders provide evening, weekend and school holiday cover. All childminders will have completed a training course including paediatric first aid. Nanny/Home childcarers are carers, which look after children in the family home. They can fit in with unusual hours and working patterns. They can register with Ofsted on the Voluntary register, to allow families to take advantage of tax credits. This however is not compulsory. Day Nurseries can care for children aged from birth to five years and usually offer day care from 8am to 6pm, for most of the year. All day nurseries will be registered with Ofsted and inspected regularly. You can view inspection reports by visiting www. ofsted. gov. uk They can be run by private individuals, community groups, Montessori organisations, commercial businesses or by employers. Private Nursery Schools (aka Private Independent Schools) are owned privately and can offer sessional or full day care to children aged two to five. Some schools can offer a particular educational approach, for example Montessori. They may operate only during term-time or could open all year. They could be registered with Ofsted or the ISI (Independent School Directorate) (LEA) Maintained Nursery Schools offer full and part-time early years education places, typically between school hours. They are attached to primary schools. A child can attend for a full or half day. Nursery schools may also offer childcare after school (see out of school clubs). Pre-schools and playgroups offer care to children in their local community, either as a morning or afternoon session or as extended sessions including lunch. They are often run by voluntary groups but can also be run by private individuals. They care for children aged from two to five years and are usually open during term time. They differ from day nurseries in that they offer sessional based care and admit children from the age of two years old. They can be registered with Ofsted or unregistered. Independent Schools are owned privately and cater for children aged from three to sixteen. The schools are registered with Ofsted or the ISI but make their own arrangements concerning staff numbers qualifications and curriculum. If the school participates in the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) curriculum, it will be inspected by Ofsted. Out of School Clubs (aka Play Centres) provide safe and stimulating play opportunities for school age children at times when schools are not open. They can operate before school in the mornings, from the end of the school day and at the end of the working day, throughout the school holidays, or a combination of all three. They typically cater for children aged four to fifteen but some non-RBKC run clubs might look after younger children.

Care Of People With Learning Disabilities

Care Of People With Learning Disabilities Regardless of the above mentioned fact, a large majority of the population, in the UK continues to suffer from blatant neglect in terms of receiving quality health care. Although there are various services offered by the government at various levels to ensure proper care of patients, the more psychological and moral aspects of care for the soul and dignity in health care are usually ignored. This paper, aims to probe the various issues related to the element of dignity as it pertains to provision of health care of people suffering from learning disabilities, and explores the range of services available to them, at various stages of life, from birth till death. People with Learning Disabilities are one of the most Vulnerable groups in the society (Department of Health 2001). It is estimate that there are over 800,000 people in the UK aged over 20 years who have a learning disabilities and this number could be rise by 14 percent to 900,000 by 2021 (Department of Health 2005a). Dignity in care has become an important policy thrust for the people with learning disability and its a fairly recent trend for governments to feel that it is their role to enlighten people how to do their job rather than just set broad guidelines/policy parameters for the Health and social service (Wainwright. 2008) Meaning and Definition of the terms and Concepts used: The terms and / or concepts which are frequently used throughout this study, such as Dignity, Learning Disability, and Disenfranchised Death, are explained in the following section: The term Dignity is defined as: Dignity is concerned with how people feel, think and behave in relation to the worth or value of themselves and others. To treat someone with dignity is to treat them as being of worth, in a way that is respectful of them as valued individuals (RCN, 2008). Dignity in care consists of numerous overlapping phases which pertaining to respect, privacy, independence and self-esteem. The impermanent sense of dignity used as a guide which based on standard dictionary definition. At state, quality or manner worthy of esteem or respect ; and self-respect. Dignity in care, therefore, means the kind of care, in any setting, which supports and promotes, and does not undermine, a persons self-respect regardless of any difference. (A desk research report prepared for the Department of Health 2009): Learning Disability: In the UK in 1995 there was a ground swell of opinion and referred to as mentally handicapped their families and those who worked with them, brought about a change in terminology from mental handicapped to learning disability(M.Brown-2003). Learning disability includes the presence of: A significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information, to learn new skills (impaired intelligence), with a reduced ability to cope independently (impaired social functioning); and a condition which started before adulthood, with a lasting effect on development (Scottish Executive, 2010). Disenfranchised Death: Disenfranchised death is death that is not openly acknowledged with the dying person, where the dying person is socially excluded from the process of dying and deliberately excluded from the decision making processesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Read, 2006: 96) However, reviewing different context of learning disability care reveals a variety of ways in which the term has been defined several times (Department of Health 2001a, Gates 2003,Grant et al 2005, O Hara Sperlinger 1997). Within the United Kingdà Ã‚ ¾m leà Ã‚ °rning diц¢Ãƒ Ã‚ °bility iц¢ the term uц¢ed when referring tà Ã‚ ¾ Ñâ‚ ¬eà Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬le with Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾gnitive imÑâ‚ ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ °irment. à Ã‚ rà Ã‚ ¾und the wà Ã‚ ¾rld termц¢ inÑ lude intelleÑ tuà Ã‚ °l diц¢Ãƒ Ã‚ °bility, develà Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬mentà Ã‚ °l diц¢Ãƒ Ã‚ °bility, mentà Ã‚ °l hà Ã‚ °ndiÑ Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬ à Ã‚ °nd mentà Ã‚ °l retà Ã‚ °rdà Ã‚ °tià Ã‚ ¾n. à Ã‚  leà Ã‚ °rning diц¢Ãƒ Ã‚ °bility iц¢ à Ã‚ ° life-là Ã‚ ¾ng Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾nditià Ã‚ ¾n thà Ã‚ °t uц¢uà Ã‚ °lly beginц¢ à Ã‚ ¾n à Ã‚ ¾r à Ã‚ °rà Ã‚ ¾und the time à Ã‚ ¾f birth à Ã‚ °nd reц¢ultц¢ in à Ã‚ ° reduÑ ed à Ã‚ °bility tà Ã‚ ¾ underц¢tà Ã‚ °nd new à Ã‚ °nd Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾mÑâ‚ ¬lex infà Ã‚ ¾rmà Ã‚ °tià Ã‚ ¾n à Ã‚ °nd Ñ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬e indeÑâ‚ ¬endently. Research Question: The basic research question this paper tries to address is: Dignity in health care for people with learning disabilities (LD): Fact or a Farce? Through this question an attempt is made to: Examine the range of services currently provided to people with learning disabilities. Whether such services are in conformity with the overall objectives set by the government. Whether there exists any discrimination or prejudice between people with learning disabilities and the normal public in providing such services. Whether the claims made by the government concerning equality and fair treatment of such people hold true. The answers to the above questions, as provided through the literature review will help in determining whether dignity in care for people with learning disabilities is a fact or a farce. Aims and Objectives: The main aim of this study is to explore the issues related to dignity as it pertains to health care of people suffering from learning disabilities. The objectives include: To explore the range of challenges faced and problems encountered by people suffering from learning disabilities Assess the quality of health care services available to them Investigate the need for a comprehensive and an all-encompassing health care policy for such people To understand and compare the type of services offered and available to them To explore the role of carers, health care institutions and other support services in enhancing their status and ensuring their well-being. Ethics: The concept of ethics has evolved recently from the modest definition of the term that of conventional ethics, to its gradual transformation into various branches and sub-types such as bio ethics, ethics related to human rights and to the more recent, health policy ethics. Ethics in terms of health care refers to the equitable and fair distribution of resources, benefits and services among the people, regardless of their age, gender, race, ethnicity, socio-economic background or the kind of illness they are suffering with. Equity in treatment of illnesses, hence, is an inevitable and inseparable part of health care ethics. On account of growing concerns regarding the inequitable treatment given to people with learning disabilities the initiatives related to providing adequate and good quality health care have gained momentum. Activists worldwide, campaigning for the cause of provision of adequate health care facilities for people with various disabilities, have actively pushed for dignity in health care, especially towards people with learning disabilities. They have demanded a thorough review of policies and principles of health care to ensure dignity of such people. (Morrison, 2008). As the civilization confidently strides towards a new millennium, there is likely to be a rise in group of supporters campaigning for and advocating ethics in health care with a special stress on protecting and defending human dignity. Such a cause which is advocated by academic scholars, researchers, human right groups and activists alike, must, hence be taken up seriously and appropriate policies are developed at the local, regional as well as national levels to ensure compliance (Fulford et al, 2002). Ethics in general and in health care in particular, has undergone a major transformation from a concept which was initially confined to protecting the interests of an individual to a full-fledged social concern. Hence it is inevitable for the health care institutions to take such a matter into consideration while developing strategies and implementing health care policies, which involves people with learning and other developmental disabilities. Project Methods/Methodology: For the purpose of this study, phenomenological research methodology is chosen, whereby observations are made on the basis of data collected from trusted government websites such as the NHS, published research reports, medical journals, books as well as magazines and newspapers. In order to accomplish the research objectives, an attempt was made to explore, analyze and seek information related to qualitative studies which aimed at: Assessing the plight of people suffering from learning disabilities. The perception of such people towards the health care facilities made available by the government. The existence of various services and its effectiveness and addressing the key issues and challenges faced by such people. The need for trained carers and the knowledge which they must possess in order to be able to deal with such people, in a better and efficient manner. The various obstacles which may be encountered while dealing with patients suffering from learning disabilities right from detection to end-of-life care, etc among others. This research is based on the phenomenological research methodology, which takes into consideration the perspectives of other researchers, and research reports published by government departments comprising of first hand information and accounts of people suffering from learning disabilities. According to Dilthey, (in Rapport, 2004): The quest to understand more and better is essentially a qualitative pursuit that requires an experience-near language. It starts with experiences we already understand and expands and deepens these understandings into broader and different contexts through dialogue with otherness. Such understanding proceeds by a mode of analysis in which meaning arises out of relating parts to whole (Pp. 80) Literature review helps in assessing, analyzing and interpreting various studies conducted by scholars, and researchers with regard to the topic under study and helps in justifying and substantiating the research hypothesis. Literature reviews help in summarizing the various perspectives presented by the researchers with regard to the given topic and lend more credibility to the subject being discussed. According to Burns and Grove (2005): Literature review is an organized written presentation of what has been published on a topic by scholars. The purpose of the review is to convey to the reader what is currently known regarding the topic of interest (Pp.93). Literature Review: People with learning disabilities are often excluded within society also have little control over their own lives, and were more likely than others to have bad things happening in their lives (Joint Committee on Human Rights, 2008). People with learning disabilities, and particularly older ones, are among those groups of people who are faced with various barriers, such as access to good quality health care and equality in opportunities and health care services available to them, which add to their woes by making it all the more difficult to cope with their disability (Jenkins, 2005; Frey, 2006). People with learning disabilities comprise of a highly vulnerable section of the society and have limited access to health care facilities / services offered to them. Hence they are often faced with obstacles and challenges while copying with grave situations such as loss and bereavement of loved ones, personal illness, death etc (Elliott, 1995). which in turn tends to aggravate their situati on and increase their dependence on the society which includes their friends, family and loved ones as well as the community in general. They are known to have been ignored persistently in terms of providing services in the need of personal illness, death, and other challenging life situations, thus increasing their vulnerability all the more. One of the most common characteristics observed in case of people with learning disabilities, on the basis of various studies, is their inability to communicate effectively. Although some of them can communicate their thoughts, feelings, fears and emotions effortless, a majority of them find it difficult to communicate accurately, in a meaningful manner. Such a drawback, often leads to further serious complications, such as detection of any major health problems, thus putting their lives at risk (Gates, 2007; Great Britain: Joint Committee on Human Rights Report, 2008). According to Tuffrey-Wijne (2003), one of the most effective means of accurate medical assessment is appropriate and effortless communication and any irregularity in communicating issues related to ones health often, invariably leads to disastrous results, which affects the health of the individual in question, and leads to incorrect and undesirable outcomes. The outcome of ineffective communication and inability to communicate ones health problems is even more lethal in case of people with learning disabilities. According to Tuffrey-Wijne (1997) any inefficiency on the part of the individual suffering from learning disability, to communicate their health problems, may lead to a late diagnosis which further leads to an incorrect prognosis, and ultimately ends in untimely death of the individuals concerned. Office of Population Censuses and Surveys (OPCS 1998) showed that 48% of people with learning disabilities have impairment in one sensory domain and 18% are doubly impaired. Most s ignificant issues are eating problem, nutrition, sleeping, respiratory function problems, foot care, skin conditions, pressure sores, bowel problems and gear disease (J.OHaraA.Sperlinger, 1997). Improved access to health care services for people with learning disabilities is a step ahead in ensuring their well being. Good quality physical and mental care services can go a long way in ensuring their long term safety. Furthermore increased commitment on the part of the carers and other health care service providers is probably one of the fastest and cheapest ways to ensure their better health. One of the most important and crucial elements of health care services is offering end-of-life care services to people with learning disabilities. Communication, with respect to people with learning disabilities, is not restricted to the mere transfer of thoughts to the other person/s but in fact, it includes the ability that other person, to whom the information is being communicated, to accurately interpret the thoughts being conveyed, respond promptly on the information made available to them, and ensure follow up. Such a form of reciprocal communication is an extremely important and fundamental survival tool, for people with learning disabilities. According to Kerr et al (1996) available statistics have indicated that as many as 50% of the people suffering from learning disability suffer from some form of communication impairment, which includes difficulties in cognition, hearing, language, speech or social interaction (Ambalu, 1997). This is a matter of grave concern for the care givers as well as the government health care institutions which are involved in providing health care services to people with disabilities. Another equally critical aspect, which is generally observed with regard to the people with learning disabilities, is the negative perception about such people among the common public, which in turn further gives rise to an equally negative reaction from people with learning disabilities which arises from the feeling that they are being negatively viewed (Gates, 2007). According to Thornton (1996), Lindop and Read (2000) and Read (2006) the major reasons behind such negative perception of people with learning disabilities is the lack of adequate knowledge as well as lack of professional experience which invariably leads to negative attitudes among people towards those with learning disabilities. According to Mencap (2004) such factors may further culminate into professional incongruity and prejudicial treatment, thereby further hampering their mental and physical well-being ultimately leading to institutional discrimination and poor health care for such people. Create awareness and b uild up interpersonal relationships with people with learning disabilities, consideration needs to be given to how to maintain relationships, using everyday opportunities to engage in valued conversation. Often, as carers, main interaction with people is associated with personal care (Ambalu in OHara Sperlinger1997). The government White Paper Valuing people: A new strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century (Department of Health 2001a) clearly set the agenda for us, in offering appropriate and effective support people with learning disabilities in their everyday lives. Critical Commentary: Learning Disability is a label. People with learning disability are people first. The British Institute of Learning Disabilities, 2010 Thus it is imperative that such people receive utmost care and quality health care services which, if not better, at par with the facilities and services enjoyed by the rest of the population, regardless of their mental / physical health. People, regardless of their backgrounds i.e. race, ethnicity, gender, age, or socio-economic backgrounds they belong to, have an equal and just right to have access to quality health care services, and the denial of such a basic right, is the denial of human rights. It has been observed, on the basis of the above research, that people suffering from learning disabilities are often victims of negative public perception and lack of professionalism displayed by the carers, which forces this group to succumb to their illnesses, which often goes undetected. Such disenfranchised deaths, are common among people with learning disability (Read, 2006) and hence requires active steps to be taken on the national level. In order to eliminate and / reduce the occurrence of such disenfranchised deaths among people with learning disabilities; it is necessary and extremely important for the general population to treat such people with dignity, and respect. They deserve an equal right to be treated as adults and equal citizens. Such a policy entails implementation of creative health care strategies specifically aimed at people with learning disability, as well as active participation and cooperation on the part of the carers, in order to ensure effective communication, which in turn, as observed from the above research, ensures better understanding of the problems faced by them, a prompt analysis and diagnosis and an effective treatment. Conclusion: Dignity in care is a very critical element of health care, and considering the fact that people with learning disabilities are amongst the largely socially disqualified and hence highly vulnerable, groups in the UK it requires immediate attention at both institutional as well as national level. People suffering from learning disabilities are socially ignored, and often are subject to prejudicial treatment, partly owing to lack of awareness and more so, on account of the lack of availability of opportunities. They rarely have proper employment and have little or no control over the carers who are appointed for looking after their well-being. Moreover their concerns are barely discussed on a wider platform. This situation is grave and calls for immediate change and positive reforms. People with learning disabilities are equally respectable members of the society and they need to be treated with dignity and care which they deserve. Concerns such as unemployment, proper health care, education, housing, social security, etc should be addressed by the government in association with the local councils and ensure its proper access to the people with in dire need of such services. Proper implementation of well designed policies and measures and synchronized co-ordination of all members of the community can go a long way in securing the well being of such people. It can be difficult at times, and extremely challenging but such positive practice by the health care service providers and carers alike can pave way for better networking, collaborative working and interdisciplinary support, thus ensuring their health and safety in the long run (BILD,2010).. It is imperative that the government and the leading health care institutions champion this cause, and instigate, lead and encourage such good practice initiatives by providing professional and well trained carers for people with learning disabilities. Hence gaining trust and building relationship over a period of time are important consideration not only establishing and maintaining relationships, but also in thinking about ending (I. Peate D. Fearns 2006). In conclusion, strict guidelines and policies are not enough at times, and it needs a collaborative effort on all fronts to strive to provide better care to people with learning disabilities.

Pros and Cons of Inclusion Essay -- Education Disabled Children School

Pros and Cons of Inclusion Inclusion 'mainstreams' physically, mentally, and multiply disabled children into regular classrooms. In the fifties and sixties, disabled children were not allowed in regular classrooms. In 1975 Congress passed the Education of all Handicapped Students Act, now called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA mandates that all children, regardless of disability, had the right to free, appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. Different states have different variations of the law. Some allow special needs students to be in a regular education classroom all day and for every subject, and others allow special education students to be in a regular education classroom for some subjects and in a separate classroom for the rest. There are many different views on inclusive education. In this paper I will address some of the positive and negative views on inclusion and ways to prepare educators for inclusive education. PROS Perhaps the strongest argument for greater inclusion, even full inclusion, comes from its philosophical/moral/ethical base. This country was founded upon the ideals of freedom and equality of opportunity. Though they have not been fully achieved, movement towards their fuller realization continues. Integration activists point to these ideals as valid for those with disabilities, too. Even opponents agree that the philosophical and moral/ethical underpinnings for full inclusion are powerful. (SEDL, 1995) Many agree that inclusion can be a positive experience for special education students, general education students and educators. Inclusive classrooms provide a diverse, stimulating environment for special education students. Vaughn and Klingner, 1995 found that special education students believe that inclusive classrooms provide them with more of an opportunity to make friends (Turnbull et al., 2004, p.70). Special education students who are included in regular education classrooms become part of a much larger learning community and they are able develop more of a positive self view. General education students also benefit from the diversity of an inclusive classroom. Duhaney and Salend, 2000 found that parents of children without disabilities identified benefits for their own children such as greater sensitivity to the needs of other children, more helpfulness in meeti... ...hanging concerns that their staff, parents, and others have as greater inclusion begins to be implemented. By attending to these issues, a more inclusive educational system is possible. (SEDL, 1995)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Douvanis, G. and Hursley, D. (2002). The Least Restrictive Environment Mandate: How Has it Been Defined by the Courts?. Arlington, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. (ERIC Document No. E629). Doyle, M.B. (2002). The Paraprofessional?s Guide to the Inclusive Classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Goldstein, S. and Mather, N. (2001). Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviors. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Lindsay, G. (2003). Inclusive Education: a critical perspective. British Journal of Special   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Education. 30(1). Pappanikou, A.J. and Paul, J. (Eds.). (1997). Mainstreaming Emotionally Disturbed Children. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University. Shank, M., Smith, S., Turnbull, A. & Turnbull, R. (2004). Exceptional Lives Special Shore, K. (1986). The Special Education Handbook. New York, NY: Teachers College Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. (1995). Inclusion: The pros and cons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Issues?about Change.4(3).

Female Genital Mutilation in Islam Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive T

Female Genital Mutilation in Islam      Ã‚   Female circumcision is a practice not uncommon in Muslim society.   Although this practice does not only occur within Muslim society, this paper will focus on the practices that do occur within Islamic society.   The Islamic countries with the most prevalence in practicing this form of genital mutilation are Sudan (98%), Somalia (98%), and Egypt (75%) (El Saadawi 34).   Other Islamic countries that practice this are Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, and India, which practice this under the name of sunnah circumcision.   Sunnah refers to the Muslim religion, although it is not clearly defined within the religion. There are three major types of female circumcision that are commonly practiced within Islamic society.   These types are:   sunnah; clitoridectomy or excision; infibulation or pharaonic circumcision.   Sunnah is performed according to the tradition of Mohammed.   Religious circles who favor this method of circumcision usually do not give details as to what the act actually entails.   Some circles say that is the complete removal of the clitoris and labia minora, whereas others tend to say that it is just the cutting of the kernel-shaped external skin above the genitals (Falk).   A cliteridectomy consists of ablation of the clitoris as well as the labia minora.   Infibulation involves complete removal of the clitoris, labia minora, and part of the labia majora.   Then the two sides of the vulva are sewn together with silk, thorns, or slivers of wood in order to close the vulva, except for a passage of urine and menstrual flow (Falk).   Even with minimal excisions, th is experience undoubtedly traumatizes the female.   "To some extent all excisions involve some degree of irreparable loss.   A... ...Facts.   In Global Problems [On-line].   4 paragraphs.   Available HTTP: www.earlham.edu/earlhamcollege/polisci/globalprobs/fgm/Biology.html Brownlee, Shannon, and Jennifer Seter.   "In the Name of Ritual."   U.S. News and World Report 7 Feb 1994:   56-58. Cloudsley, Anne.   Women of Omdurman.   London:   Ethnographica, 1983.   105-125. El Saadawi, Nawal.   The Hidden Face of Eve, Women in the Arab World.   tr. & ed. Sherif Hetata.   London:   Zed Press, 1980.   30-44. Falk, Geoffrey.   11 August 1995.   Circumcision Information and Resource Pages [On-line]. Available:   halt.culture.Internet.Netscape.html Gaudio, Attilio, and Renee Pelletier.   Femmes.   Paris:   Donoel/Gonthier Press, 1980.   52-54. Mire, Soraya.   "A Wrongful Rite."   Essnece June 1994:   42. Sanderson, Lilisan P.   Against Mutilation of Women.   London:   Ithaca Press, 1981.   25.

The Inklings by Humphrey Carpenter Essay -- Lewis Tolkien Charles Will

The Inklings by Humphrey Carpenter C.S. Lewis heard the bells of one of the colleges strike noon as he hurried purposefully along the narrow cobblestone streets of Oxford. He disliked giving the tutorials required of his position of Tutor in English Language and Literature at Magdalen College and usually kept the sessions to the minimum required time. However, this tutorial had given rise to a particularly enjoyable debate, and he never liked to cut off a good hydebate, although he now wished he had. He was late. Lewis hastily acknowledged the barkeep as he ducked into the Eagle and Child, or Bird and Baby as the pub was better known, and hurried towards the sound of his friends’ laughter coming from the back room and to join in the conversation he had been looking forward to all morning. The group was a usual fixture in the pub on Tuesday mornings, and he was swiftly served his drink as ordering was no longer necessary. As he settled back into his chair, listening to the conversation, he surveyed this group of men, collectively known as the Inklings, which had come to mean so much to him over the years. Present today were Lewis’s brother Warnie Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, and Hugo Dyson. Lewis briefly wondered what the rest of the members (Nevill Coghill, Owen Barfield, R.E. Havard, and Adam Fox) were doing as he began to reminisce. The impact this literary group had on the world, with books like The Screwtape Letters, The Lord of the Rings trilogy, and War in Heaven written by brilliant Inklings as evidence, is tremendous. At the same time, no one was more influenced by the Inklings than Lewis himself. Each of the Inklings might have known one or two others before the formation of the group, thr... ...endship, centered around Lewis, which rose above the diversity. The group rose and began to gather hats and coats to ready themselves for the crisp spring afternoon. It had been a good Inklings and had produced some rather stimulating conversation. It occasionally reached such a fevered pitch that some other patrons of the Bird and Baby, not the regulars who regarded the Inklings as somewhat of a fixture, to raise an eyebrow. Lewis once remarked they â€Å"probably think we’re talking bawdy when in fact we’re very likely talking theology† (185). As this diverse group of friends separated to go back to their jobs at various colleges, Lewis smiled to himself. He was already looking forward to Thursday. Work Cited Carpenter, Humphrey. The Inklings: C.S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, and their friends. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1979.

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy

History : Ludwig V. Bertalanffy was born in September 19, 1901, and grew up in the little village of Atzgersdorf near  Vienna. He was  known as one of the founders of general systems theory  (GST). Von Bertalanffy grew up in Austria and subsequently worked in Vienna, London, Canada and the USA. In 1972, he died from a sudden  heart attack. Theory ( Open System ): Ludwig developed open system theory between 1930 and 1956. By the early 1960s, theoretical psychologists applied the theory to organizational structures such as governments, universities and businesses.Any time an individual organization uses resources from its environment–including personnel–in its production, its system is open to outside forces. System Characteristics: When a business regularly interacts with its environment, and exchanges and processes feedback, it is an open system organizational structure. Open systems have open, or porous, boundaries that allow feedback exchanges from inside and outside the business.The controllers of open systems pay attention to their external environment, internal environment and customer needs and reactions. Open systems tend to devise more than one way to accomplish goals or reach similar results with different conditions and operations–what von Bertalanffy called â€Å" equifinality . † This is in direct contrast to closed systems that function under the assumption that there is only one way to achieve a result: a direct relationship between cause and effect. Open Systems in Business:Businesses depend on employees, suppliers, customers and even the competition for research, development and profit. Because the business doesn’t have control of all the environmental forces, it relies on predictions and contingencies to cope with unexpected input. For example, an influenza epidemic can affect suppliers, personnel and even customers, causing lost production and lost profit. Benefits: Open system organizational structur es promote effective problem solving by clarifying the big picture.Continuous feedback and response results in better understanding, by leadership and management, of the organization’s structure within the environment and the interactive dynamics between them. That opens the door for better communication and more feedback. When the system and subsystems have enough feedback, the results can produce more clearly directed planning, intelligent design, useful products and necessary services.

Philosophies from Aquinas, Augustine, and Irenaeus and other theologians Essay

The study of religion and philosophy is infinitely confronted with the problem of evil and its broad association to sin. In facing this debacle, there is a tendency for religion to deny the existence of evil and clearly explicate that it is a mere event in the undeveloped minds of people. Religion may also uphold that there is a competent rivalry between evil and good as evil can be considered as a rival authority, containing power equal to the divine good. It can also be derived that evil is the imperfect cooperation in the good explained under the presence of a deity deemed as omnibenevolent and omniscient. Some response concerning the evil include that debates which inculcate that the true free will cannot be established without the possibility of evil. This idea can be translated to the notion that humans are not able to understand and comprehend God, that spiritual growth and development necessisitates suffering and that evil is the impact of effect of the fallen and disrupted world. Many disciplines have attempted to provide a concrete definition of evil and sin and the proposed assumptions on the connection of evil to sin have encountered denials coming from other scholars. In this paper, multiple philosophies and valuable insights concerning the association of evil to sin will be explored. The teachings of Thomas Aquinas, Irenaeus and Augustine and of others will be discussed in order to define evil and sin, describe the relationshipof evil to sin, and to explicate the difference and the causality of sin and evil in the contemporary world. This paper’s central focus is on the inquiry: Every evil is sin, but is every sin evil? The Teachings of Thomas Aquinas on Evil and Sin The concept of evil by Thomas Aquinas and his entire miscellany of philosophy are naturally grounded upon the teachings of the St. Augustine who created a philosophical theological position on evil. Evil is an English noun that is commonly used today to describe anything that is undeniably horrendous, particularly in the aspect of human behavior. However, Thomas Aquinas says that the term evil has more inclusive sense than evil does for people. According to Aquinas, â€Å"we are dealing with evil whenever we are faced by whatever can be thought of as a case of falling short. † For Aquinas, there is no evil substance in the world and neither God nor man creates evil. In saying this Aquinas proves that the world is â€Å"created and governed by a perfectly good God who is also omnipotent and omniscient. † This teaching negates the argument of humans who say that each time some of the good stray aways from an object then it is evil. Aquinas says no this argument by declaring that no evil exists materially. Aquinas explicates that human beings are wholly good but have the tendency that some of their goodness will be removed. Aquinas strongly argues that there is a â€Å"serious sense in which it can be thought of as lacking in being. † Take for instance the thought of Adolf Hitler as wholly good. This example may raise several criticisms since Hitler has enjoyed being a household name for evil, but it is to illustrate Aquinas’s concept of evil caused by the removal of good. For Aquinas, Hitler is good- he has competent brain, his physique is complete, and he almost bares resemblance to God. But Hitler has some of his goodness removed when he tries to rule the world with tyranny. According to Aquinas, â€Å"evil ‘is there’ only in the sense that something is missing. † Aquinas continues to say that â€Å"what is not there cannot be thought of as made to be by the source of the being of things. † In this sense, Aquinas follows Augustine’s thought and says that God can never be the cause of evil because evil is not an actual thing but the â€Å"absence of a good that ought to be present. † What causes people to be bad is the gap between who they are and how they should be but are not. Aquinas points rules out his concept of evil by illustrating that there will be no badness unless there goodness yet there can be goodness without any badness. In the aspect of sin, Aquinas writes that it is not the disobedience of irrational authority, but it is a violation of well-being. According to Aquinas, heologians may describe sin as an act againts God and philosophers may signify it as opposed to reason, but it is St. Augustine who aptly defines sin. Aquinas explains that it is more accurate to define sin â€Å"as being contrary to the eternal law rather contrary to human reason, especially since the eternal law includes many things beyond the scope of reason, such as matters of faith. † Even though Aquinas is an advocate of the philosophy of Augustine, he recognizes that the Augustine sometimes talks only about will in describing sin. Aquinas explains thaat the exterior act, which is the veruy substance of the sin, is evil itsefl and thus it is necessary to include exterior acts in the definition of sin. † However, Augustine and Aquinas both agree that the sin is evil because it harms and diminishes natural good. Aquinas takes into consideration the application of the natural law. According to Aquinas, â€Å"when it is said that all sins are evil but not because they are prohibited, that prohibition is understood as an act of positive law. † Aquinas emphasizes that since the natural law comes fron the eternal law and acts of positive law are derived from the natural law, then all sins are evil. It is argued by Aquinas that evil is the privation of good and an individual can identify the extent of privation by what is left after such action. In this idea, Aquinas is stressing that â€Å"what remains of good after every sin is the same, since there remains after every sin the very nature of the soul and the freedom of choice by which humans can choose good and evil. † Aquinas tells that all sins are equal and are evil. The focal point of Aquinas in saying that all sins are evil and that all sins are equal is the only main source capable of commanding humans what they ought to be. As a theologian, Aquinas gives emphasis to God as the main source the nature and eternal and divine law. Aquinas says that â€Å"since all are the same in turning away from God, all sins are equal. † For Aquinas, every sin is evil because it is a deviation from reason and law. Aquinas describes sin as having no cause because it has the nature of evil. It has been discussed earlier that evil is the removal of goodness whats is lacking in humans as a wholly good. Aquinas emphasizes that what is missing cannot be thought of as made to be by the source of the being of things. The same goes for sins. This concept makes both sin and evil as original which thrive on will that act against reason and divine moral law. Same with evil, God can never be the source of sin. Likewise evil can never be the cause of sin. In this sense, the evil of punishment serves as the sequel to sin. He compares evil of guilt to sin and declares that they have no difference. In saying that sin has a cause, Aquinas is quick to clarify that such cause is not necessarily a cause for sin can be impeded. This musing denotes that if there should be a necessary cause for sins, then people will keep on making sins since there is a cause inherent to them that makes them commit sins. Such notion echoes the perspective of Aquinas on whether sin has an internal cause. Aquinas argues that if sin has an internal cause, then man would always be sinning and since it has a cause, there will always be an effect. Aquinas also defines sin by mentioning virtue. Aquinas says, â€Å"But sin is evil because it takes away virtue. Therefore, all sins are equally evil, since every one of them equally takes away virtue. † Aquinas thinks of sins as contrary to virtues and that all virtues are equal. Therefore, Aquinas reaffirms that all sins are equal. He also come up with the idea of malice that is the equalizer of all sins. Aquinas says that â€Å"sin has malice in relation to turning away from God. † This feature in relation to the deviation from God states that circumstances tag the malice of sins as being more serious. Aquinas adds that â€Å" if circumstances should themselves have malice, they constitute species of sin and if they should not in themselves have any malice, there is no reason why they should make the sins more serious. † On the on the hand, the diversity in sins that other arguments are pointing to is a mere presentation of morally indifferent genus. Overall, Aquinas writes that all sins are evil in a sense that they both result in being unnatural, the failure of the natural rule that man ought to observe and obey. Evil and Sin According To Augustine Many of St. Augustine’s teachings on evil substantiate Aquinas concept. They both believe that the immutable God created only good things and He alone is the source of all being. Augustine negates all forms of theological and metaphysical dualism and puts great emphasis on God who is wholly good. According to Augustine, there is no dualism existing in the problem of evil. The thought of evil as not a being, a thing, or substance or entity liberates him from the Manichaean dualism,the belief that there exists two powerful beings, the good and evil. He realizes that all the God created are metaphysically and ontologically good in their being. He proposes that if evil were a being, a thing or an entity, then the problem fo evil will not be solved because it has a source. If the evil comes from God, then God is not all good and if it does not come from God, then He is not the powerful creator of all things. Augustine says that God is a spiritual and not a corporeal being and he â€Å"rejects Manichaeism’s materialistic dualism but embraces a different dualism between corporeal and spiritual beings, with God, angels, and human soul falling into the latter class. † Upon rejecting the Manicheism and its simple concept on the origin of evil, Augustines obliges himself to establish an alternative solution to the origins of evil and starts to proclaim that evil represents a free deviation from God and is not a positive entity in its own right. All of the works of the immutable Creator of men are revelations of God’s nature and therefore, all of His works are of wholly good. Both Augustine and Aquinas believe that evil does not come from God. In his struggle concerning the confusion over evil, Augustine further says that the evil is not something that is completely real biut only fragment that is dependent on that which is absolutely real. According to Augustine, evil is not a thing or substance but he is aware of its existence and that it can be divided into three kinds. Metaphysical evil is the lack of man’s perfection not because of his given nature but because they all fall short of complete perfection that only God can obtain. This is not actually considered evil. The second kind is the physical evil that is the privation of a certain perfection because of nature. This kind is being justified by Augustine together with the other theologians as under the jurisdiction of the general order of nature. The third kind if the moral evil, the only real evil. It is a sin or an act opposed to the will of God. The source of the moral evil is the faculty of free will in which man is able to turn away from the right order and deviate himself from the will of God. Augustine says, â€Å"sin is so voluntary that there is no sin unless it is voluntary. † He implies that there needs to be an act of moral will in any sin or the consent to turn away from God and to His will. Augustine emphasizes that moral evil is truly a sin for there is a consent. Sin settles itself in the free will, option, intention, and the motion of the soul, which instigates a wrong order into the world. Evil is â€Å"nothing but a privation of good until at last a thing ceases altogether to be. † An evil will is a kind of will that deviates away from God, the creator. Moreover, Augustine says that it is a disordered love and will, the wrong conformity to God’s will. The writings of Augustine on sin are associated with his Christian definition of evil. Augustine defines sin as the movement or the deviation of will endowed to humans away from God. He furthers his discussion of sin by stating that God can never be the author of sin just as He can never be the source of evil. Such movement of the human will away from the God the Creator is also referred by Augustine as the misdirection. According to him, as there is a misdirection on evil will, there is also a misdirection in the aspect of sin. Augustine explains that â€Å"sin is therefore an error or untruth and based upon the misconception of what is good for us. † Augustine says that when people choose to sin, they must have an intention of obtaining goodness or getting rid of something bad. He suggests that sin is more than an intellectucal error, it is the â€Å"misdirection of the will. † Augustine’s musing on sin as the misdirection of human will is demonstrated in man’s pursuit of happiness or pride. Augustine notes that pride is the â€Å"an appetite for inordinate exaltation,it when the soul cuts itself from the Source to which it should keep close and somehow makes itself and becomes an end to itself. † Augustine continues that inordinate exaltation takes place when the â€Å"soul is inordinately pleased with itself, and such self-pleasing occurs when the soul falls away away from the unchangeable Good which ought to please the sould far more than the soul can please itself. † He also validates his definition of sin by saying that what the people do for the sake of goodness ends in something negative or bad , and what people do in making things good ends in just making things worse. Augustine explains this paradox by writing that â€Å"except that the happiness of man can come not from himself but only from God, and that to live according to oneself is to sin is to lose God. † This paradox explicates that sin is the possibility of man to focus on himself rather than on the all-knowing God. It is therefore suggested that, based upon the writings of Augustine, not all sins are considered evil due to the categorization of evil involving nature. Irenaeus On Evil and Sin Little is known about Irenaeus and his works are mostly generated fromScriptures and the biblical domain. The understanding of sin found in the works of Irenaeus of Lyons has some contradictions when compared to the dominant Christian perspective influenced by Augustine in the fifth century. Irenaeus of Lyons interprets Genesis as the disobedience of man with Adam acting like an impulsive child. Irenaeus thinks of sin as pains and errors which grow. He says that there is no such a things as original sin or guilt that man inherited from his forefather, Adam. It is seen that he has a different view of the man’s fall compared to the teachings of later writers particularly Augustine. This idea posits that Irenaeus thinks of of the fall of Adam and Eve is not a rebellion against God the Creator but is a concrete illlustration of the failure of man to rise to greater heights and that humanity does not lose its original perfection. His view concerning the fall of the humanity’s forefatther raises many questions as it does not seems to be based on Scripture but it is derived solely from his rational interpretation. He further suggests that the without loss of life and the presence of evils, humanity will not repent. Unlike, Aquinas and Augustine, Irenaeus imparts that evil comes from God. In this idea, it is clearly manifested that Irenaeus upholds that the appearance of evil is of righteous purpose. According to him, the elements which appear evil, like death are planned by God. He says, â€Å"it is for this reason therefore that Paul calls Adam himself the ‘pattern of the one to come’ because the Word, the artisan of the universe, had sketched out in advance, in order to prepare the ground for himself, the future plan of the human race in its relation to to the Son of God, with God first of all establishing natural man order, quite obviously, that he might be saved by spiritual man. † In the said notion, Iranaeus outlines two distinct phases. Iraneaus writes that the â€Å"creation of humanity comes first, secondly comes its perfection through the incarnation of the Son, Christ Jesus, who transmits the Spirit of the whole human race. † It is evident that the advent of Christ is the sole purpose behind the creation of Adam. It is written that Irenaeus â€Å"does not identify evil with sin. † It is because he acknowledges the two types of evil. The first type is the physical evil that Irenaeus refers to as â€Å"arising from the nature of the creature for its is due to the opposition of contrary forces or to the sequences of events that obey natural laws: what seems to be an evil in the short run is a good on the cosmic. † According to Irenaeus, the second type of evil is the moral evil that he considers as sin. He declares that this type of evil is sin because it arises from the â€Å"jealousy of Satan and or certain angels who lured Adam into transgression. † Influenced by the writings of Johannine, Irenaeus defines sin as the â€Å"condition of human existence rather than a collection of individual actions. † According to Irenaeus of Lyon, moral evil is to be considered as a sin because it reflects God’s original design that is putting man into the test. This type of evil is generally accounted for man’s free will and his ability to discern right from wrong. Irenaeus says that â€Å"God had foreseen the angel’s sin as well as that of man, including the consequences, and he had sanctioned it. † Iraneaus places sin in history and writes that the fall of man is the gradual spread of evil because of the inevitability of personal sin, not as a particular shift in the human nature. Moreover, Irenaeus has made a comparison between the natural person and the perfection of the person to describe sin. According to him,body and soul constitute a natural person while the perfect human being is made up of body, soul and spirit. The inclusion of God’s spirit is the essence of Irenaeus idea of the redemption. People have been redemeed and have been saved so that they may flourish into what God wants them to be. For Iranaeus, not all sins can be considered as evil as man is not accountable for some existing evils such as those coming from the natural disasters known as natural evils. The only evil that can be deemed as sin are the moral evils caused by the selfishness of humanity. Sin and Evil According to Other Theologians Lactantius is one of the Christian thinkers to respond to the problem of evil and sin referring solely to God’s laws. According to Lactantius, the â€Å"chief good of the humanity is not to be found in the theories of the philosophers, for these have to do things common to animals as well as humans or things not available to all humans. † He refers to the one and true God as the chief good and the things which meant to satisfy the body that perishes as not good at all. For him, pleasure, power and wealth are not good and anything and the disobedience of God’s laws are evil and sin. Reinhold Niebuhr belongs to the category of formative Christian moral theorists. He says that sin is â€Å"inevitable but not necessary. † He furthers his explannation of sin by stating that the â€Å"temptation to sin lies in the human situation itself. † Niebuhr stresses that the will and freedom endowed to man is the basis of his creativity and it is also his temptation. While Irenaeus declares that people need evil to spiritual grow, Niebuhr upholds his realist theory that people do not need sin and no perfection can completely liberate human beings from the reality of sin. Walter Rauschenbusch is included into the group of thinkers who deal with the importance of sin in salvation. According to him, â€Å"when we undertook to define the nature of sin, we accepted the old definition, that sin is selfishness and rebellion against God , but we insisted on putting humanity into the picture. † He further explains that the description of sin as selfishness will be accepted for as long as the humanity is perceived as a great solidarity with God thriving on it. He emphasizes that if sin is selfishness, then â€Å"man’s selfishness consisted in a selfish attitude, in which he was at the centre of the universe, and God and all his fellowmen were means to serve his pleasures, increase his wealth and set off his egotisms. † He also rescue the dosctrine of the origin of sin from literal interpretations by recognizing the active sources of sin in the later generations and in the contemporary period. He was criticized upon recognizing that both goodness and sinfulness can be determined by social environment. Rauschenbusch explains that what can be evil is dictated by the society and the same goes for sin. He says that the good maybe forced to do bad while the bad maybe forced to do good as dictated by the society. Conclusion In the tradition of religion and theology, the definition of sin is related to the problem on evil. The question addresed in this paper is whether sin leads to evil or evil leads to sin. The definition of evil and sin according to several theologians were explored in this paper in order to understand the relationship between evil and sin. Based from the literatures studied, it is said that the relationship between evil and sin can be associated with reconciliation, salvation, the fall of Adam and the society itself, and morality. It is clearly manifested that the connection between sin and evil can be interchangeable such that evil can lead to sin and sin can lead to evil. The interchangeable connection is due to the observed judgement that evil and sin have the same feature as the deviation from what man ought to be. In this sense, all evil can be sin but not all sins are considered evil due to the fact that sin comprises only the moral and spiritual side of the humanity. The inquiry on whether every sin is evil is answered on the definition of evil in which various theologians categorize into various theories. This paper has observed that every theologian has his or her own conception on evil and sin and it is evident that their concepts have been derived from other theologians who took insights also from other thinkers. This is to say that evil and sin can be both the same in a sense that they both have the same characteristics constructed by thinkers who draw insights from their influences. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aquinas, Thomas. â€Å"The Subject and Approach of the De Malo,† in On Evil, eds. Richard J. Regan and Brian Davies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologiae: Volume 25: Sin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Lacoste, Jean-Yves, ed. Encyclopedia of Christian Theology, Vol 1. New York: Routledge, 2005. Mann,William E. â€Å"Augustine on Evil and Original Sin,† in The Cambridge Companion to Augustine, eds. Eleonore Stump and Norman Kretzmann. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Wogaman, J. Philip. Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction. Kentucky: Westminster/John knox Press, 1993.